The current status of learned helplessness among family caregivers of advanced digestive tract tumor patients and its influence factors / 中国实用护理杂志

Objective:To investigate the current status of family caregivers learned helplessness in patients with advanced digestive tract tumor and analyze its influencing factors, so as to provide reference for the physical and mental management of cancer families.Methods:Totally 181 family caregivers of advanced digestive tract tumor patients from July 2018 to November 2019 in 4 gradeⅢclass A hospitals in Fuzhou were selected by convenient sampling method for investigation with the general information questionnaire and Learned Helplessness Scale. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to analyze the influencing factors of learned helplessness of family caregivers of patients with advanced digestive tract tumor.Results:The total score and the average items score of learned helplessness was (38.61 ± 15.40), (2.15 ± 0.88) points, which was at a lower level. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that the gender of caregiver, physical condition of caregivers, average monthly household income were significant influencing factors of family caregivers learned helplessness in patients with advanced digestive tract tumor ( P<0.05). Conclusions:The learned helplessness of family caregivers of patients with advanced digestive tract tumor is at a mild level. Nurses should focus on the physical and mental conditions of low-income groups and female caregivers with advanced digestive tract tumor, and regularly assess their nursing needs and health status to improve their quality of life.

Influencing factors of learned helplessness in patients with primary liver cancer treated by interventional therapy / 中国实用护理杂志

Objective:To investigate the influencing factors of learned helplessness in patients with primary liver cancer treated by interventional therapy.Methods:This study was a cross-sectional study. The 221 patients with primary liver cancer treated by interventional therapy in the Second Affiliated Hospital of Air Force Military Medical University from August 2020 to October 2021 were selected as the subjects. General data statistics, Learned Helplessness Scale and Support in Intimate Relationships Rating Scale were used for questionnaire survey.Results:The total score of learned helplessness in the 221 patients with primary liver cancer treated by interventional therapy was 74.12 ± 6.55. Gender, education level, family per capita monthly income, number of interventions and perceived spouse support were the main influencing factors of learned helplessness in patients with primary liver cancer treated by interventional therapy (adjusted R2=0.891, F=65.65, P<0.05). Conclusions:The sense of learned helplessness of patients with primary liver cancer treated by interventional therapy is at a high level. According to patients with features of male, lower education level, lower family per capita monthly income, more number of interventional therapy or lower perceived spouse support, medical staff can use dialectical behavior therapy, symptom group intervention, spouse support intervention and other methods to reduce learned helplessness of patients.

Acquisition of responses with different effort requirements after exposure to noncontingent stimuli / Aquisição de respostas de diferentes custos após exposição a estímulos não contingentes / Adquisición de respuestas de diferentes costos después de la exposición a estímulos no contingentes

This experiment investigated whether noncontingent appetitive stimuli exposure has effects in a subsequent response acquisition with different efforts. On the first phase, rats were exposed to contingent events to nose poke response, noncontingent events, or no exposition. On the second phase, the bar press response of the animals was continuously reinforced or submitted to a FR3 schedule. The time and number of reinforcers to response acquisition varied among subjects, and none relation was identified between first phase exposition with response acquisition of different efforts on phase 2. The longest time in response acquisition identified in some subjects occurred due to competitive responses on the first phase followed by appetitive stimuli. Possibilities for future studies and possible implications for the applied context are discussed.

Este experimento investigou se a exposição a estímulos apetitivos não contingentes tem efeitos sobre a aquisição de respostas de diferentes custos. Na fase 1, ratos foram expostos a eventos contingentes às respostas de focinhar, eventos não contingentes ou não foram expostos. Na fase 2, a resposta de pressão à barra dos animais foi reforçada continuamente ou em esquema FR 3. O tempo e o número de reforçadores para aquisição de respostas variaram entre os sujeitos, não sendo identificada relação entre a exposição na fase 1 e o custo da resposta a ser adquirida na fase 2. O maior tempo para aquisição da resposta ocorreu possivelmente por causa de respostas competitivas acidentalmente seguidas por estímulos apetitivos na fase 1. Discutem-se possibilidades para estudos futuros e possíveis implicações para o contexto aplicado.

Este experimento investigó si la exposición a estímulos apetitivos no contingentes tiene efectos en la adquisición de respuestas a diferentes costos. En la fase 1 se expusieron ratones a eventos contingentes a las respuestas del hocico, eventos no contingentes o no fueron expuestos. En la fase 2 la respuesta de presión a palanca de los sujetos se reforzó continuamente o en FR 3. El tiempo y el número de reforzadores para adquirir respuestas variaron entre los sujetos de las diferentes condiciones sin que se identificara ninguna relación entre la exposición de la fase 1 y el costo de la respuesta a ser adquirida. El tiempo más largo para obtener la respuesta de algunos sujetos posiblemente se debió a respuestas competitivas que, en la fase 1, fueron seguidas por estímulos apetitivos. Se discuten posibilidades para estudios futuros y posibles implicaciones para el contexto aplicado.

Neblina psicopedagógica: propuesta de un nuevo término / Psychopedagogical fog: Proposal for a new term

La psicopedagogía en Chile se encuentra en un estado de crisis, el cual repercute en los propios psicopedagogos del país, por lo cual no es de extrañar que emerjan nuevos términos o conceptos para referirse a aspectos relacionados a la situación, en este artículo se pretendió proponer y explicar el concepto de neblina psicopedagógica, el cual se sustentó desde tres aspectos importantes relacionados al profesional, siendo estos, la formación del psicopedagogo, representación social del psicopedagogo y la indefensión aprendida.

Psychopedagogy in Chile is in a state of crisis, which affects the psychopedagogues themselves in the country, so it is not surprising that new terms or concepts emerge to refer to aspects related to the situation, this article intended propose and explain the concept of psycho-pedagogical fog, which was sustained by three important aspects related to the professional, these being, the training of the psycho-pedagogue, social representation of the psycho-pedagogue and learned helplessness.

Antidepressant activity of aqueous extract of Momordica charantia leaves

Background: Depression is a common debilitating illness contributing to increase in morbidity and mortality worldwide. 20% of all depressed patients are refractory to treatment with available antidepressants at adequate doses. Momordica charantia commonly known as Karela is widely used in Indian cuisine. This study was carried out to evaluate its lesser known Antidepressant activity. The objective of this study is to evaluate the Antidepressant activity of Aqueous extract of Momordica charantia leaves.Methods: This study was done in Department of Pharmacology, JNMC, AMU. Tail Suspension test and 5-Hydroxytrytophan induced Head Potentiation was evaluated in Swiss Albino mice. Forced swim test, Learned Helplessness test and Spontaneous motor activity was noted in Albino Wistar rats respectively at doses of AEMC (Aqueous extract of Momordica charantia leaves) 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 300mg/kg.Results: AEMC at all three doses 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 300mg/kg exhibited antidepressant activity by significantly decreasing the immobility time in Tail Suspension test and except 100mg/kg. In forced swim test psychostimulant activity of AEMC was ruled out in Spontaneous motor activity. Number of Escape failures was decreased in Learned Helplessness test at doses of AEMC 200mg/kg and 300 mg/kg. Increase in Head twitches was seen only with AEMC 300mg/kg in 5-Hydroxytrytophan induced Head Potentiation in mice.Conclusions: Aqueous Extract of Momordica Charantia leaves exhibits Antidepressant activity in animal models of Depression.

Cross-cultural adaptation of Rotter's General Locus of Control instrument / Adaptação transcultural do instrumento de Locus of Control Geral de Rotter

Abstract Objective To perform a cross-cultural adaptation of the General Locus of Control (GLoC) questionnaire, which measures where people place causation of events in their lives, i.e., if they interpret events as being the result of their own actions or external factors. Methods After translation and back-translation, a multidisciplinary committee judged and elaborated different versions of the GLoC questionnaire, with a focus on conceptual equivalence, content, comprehensibility and adjustment to the Brazilian socioeconomic context. The final version was tested on 71 healthy subjects, of whom 36 were reinterviewed and answered the GLoC questionnaire twice, after a mean of 73.06±74.15 days (range = 29-359). Results The participants' mean age was 30.82±12.83 years (range = 18-69), 62% were women, and mean years of schooling were 12.54±4.21. Test-retest reliability (Pearson's) was r = 0.828. Internal consistency resulted in a Cronbach's alpha of 0.906. The mean GLoC score obtained was 8.77±3.11 (n = 71). Conclusion The Portuguese version of the GLoC questionnaire is a faithful adaptation of Rotter's original questionnaire.

Resumo Objetivo Realizar a adaptação transcultural do questionário General Locus of Control (GLoC), que avalia a que as pessoas atribuem a causa dos seus eventos de vida, isto é, se interpretam os eventos como sendo resultado de suas próprias ações ou de fatores externos. Métodos Após as fases de tradução e retrotradução do instrumento, uma equipe multidisciplinar julgou as versões obtidas quanto à manutenção do conceito original, compreensibilidade e clareza para o contexto socioeconômico da população brasileira. A versão final foi testada em 71 indivíduos saudáveis, dos quais 36 responderam duas vezes ao questionário, com um intervalo de 73,06±74,15 (29-359) dias. Resultados A média de idade dos participantes foi de 30,82±12,83 anos (com variação de 18-69), 62% eram mulheres, e o número médio de anos de escolaridade foi 12,54±4,21. A análise de confiabilidade teste-reteste (coeficiente de correlação de Pearson) foi r = 0,828. A análise de consistência interna resultou em um valor de Crohnbach de 0,906. O escore médio entre aplicações do teste foi de 8,77±3,11 (n = 71). Conclusão A versão em português do questionário GLoC é uma adaptação fiel ao instrumento original de Rotter.

Proteomic Analysis of the Hippocampus in Mouse Models of Trigeminal Neuralgia and Inescapable Shock-Induced Depression / 神经科学通报·英文版

To investigate the behavioral and biomolecular similarity between neuralgia and depression, a trigeminal neuralgia (TN) mouse model was established by constriction of the infraorbital nerve (CION) to mimic clinical trigeminal neuropathic pain. A mouse learned helplessness (LH) model was developed to investigate inescapable foot-shock-induced psychiatric disorders like depression in humans. Mass spectrometry was used to assess changes in the biomolecules and signaling pathways in the hippocampus from TN or LH mice. TN mice developed not only significant mechanical allodynia but also depressive-like behaviors (mainly behavioral despair) at 2 weeks after CION, similar to LH mice. MS analysis demonstrated common and distinctive protein changes in the hippocampus between groups. Many protein function families (such as cell-to-cell signaling and interaction, and cell assembly and organization,) and signaling pathways (e.g., the Huntington's disease pathway) were involved in chronic neuralgia and depression. Together, these results demonstrated that the LH and TN models both develop depressive-like behaviors, and revealed the involvement of many psychiatric disorder-related biomolecules/pathways in the pathogenesis of TN and LH.

Effect of Deep-brain Magnetic Stimulation on Learned Helplessness Behavior in Rats with Chronic Restrained Stress / 中国康复理论与实践

Objective To explore the curative effect of deep-brain magnetic stimulation (DMS) on learned helplessness behavior in the chronic restrained stress (CRS) rat model. Methods Twenty-nine Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into control group (n=8) and CRS group (n=21). CRS group was exerted chronic restrained stress, while the control group did not receive any stress, for three weeks. Then learned helplessness behavior was tested using Forced Swimming Test (FST) and the hopeless rats of the CRS group were divided ran-domly into sham group (n=6), DMS group (n=8) and citalopram group (n=7), that received corresponding treatment respectively. They were evaluated with FST again after one-week treatment. Results The immobile time in FST was longer in CRS group than in the control group after three-week stress (F=11.260, P=0.002). After one-week treatment, no significant improvement was found in the citalopram group (F=1.565, P=0.235), however, the immobile time in DMS group decreased (F=6.277, P=0.025), and was shorter than that in the sham group (F=5.560, P=0.036). Conclusion CRS could result in learned helplessness behavior, which could be alleviated with one-week DMS.

Total flavonoids extracted from xiaobuxin-tang on hyperactivity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in mouse learned helplessness model / 中国药理学通报

Aim To investigate the effect of the total flaconoids extracted from Xiaobuxin-Tan g ( XBXT-2 ) on the hyperactivity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in mouse learned helplessness model. Methods Learned helplessness was induced by inescapable foot shock stress over 1h session for 5 days. After screen-ing, we divided learned helplessness mice into five groups:IS, inescapable shock;Dlx, dulxetine(20 mg ·kg-1);XBXT-2(25,50 mg·kg-1). Latency to es-cape shocks and escape failure had been recorded. During the test, Dlx(20 mg·kg-1 ) and XBXT-2(25, 50 mg·kg-1 ) were administered intragastrically once daily for four days. Serum corticosterone level and ad-renocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) level were meas-ured by ELISA, and expression of glucocorticoids re-ceptor ( GR) α/β and brain-derived neurotrophic fac-tor ( BDNF ) in hippocampus was determined using Western blot method. Results XBXT-2 (25,50 mg· kg-1 ) or duloxetine treatment showed antidepressant effect in mouse learned helplessness model, as demon-strated by the decreased escape failure and escape la-tency. Our ELISA results showed that XBXT-2 or du-loxetine significantly decreased serum corticosterone level and its upstream stress hormone ACTH level in learned helplessness mice. Furthermore, Western blot result demonstrated XBXT-2 treatment increased GRs and BDNF expression in hippocampus. Conclusions XBXT-2 produces significant antidepressant effect on learned helplessness mice. In addition, the modulation of HPA axis produced by XBXT-2 may be important mechanism underlying its antidepressant-like effect in mouse learned helplessness model.

Especificación de un Modelo del Comportamiento Delictivo / Specification of a Model of Criminal Behavior

Resumen: El comportamiento delictivo es un término que alude a la violencia generada en un entorno cultural, económico, político o social que se materializa en la dinámica de los grupos para diversificarse en cuanto a sus indicadores. En este sentido, el estado del conocimiento ha construido modelos explicativos de la violencia con el fin de diferenciar las causas y los efectos. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue especificar un modelo para el estudio del comportamiento delictivo como resultado de la espiral y dinámica de violencia en el grupo donde opera el perpetrador, la víctima, los espectadores y los inquisidores. Se llevó a cabo un estudio documental con fuentes seleccionadas de bases de datos indexadas durante el periodo que a de 2009 a 2014. Los hallazgos reportados en la revisión de la literatura advierten que el comportamiento delictivo es responsabilidad exclusiva del perpetrador, aunque los modelos revisados muestran que la víctima, los espectadores y los inquisidores serían corresponsables. De este modo, la discusión se realizó considerando los aportes de expertos y el marco teórico conceptual.

Abstract: Criminal behavior is a term that refers to the violence generated in a cultural, economic, political or social environment that is embodied in the dynamics of groups to diversify in their indicators. In this sense, the state of knowledge has built explanatory models of violence in order to differentiate the causes and effects. The aim of this study was to specify a model for the study of criminal behavior as a result of the spiral and dynamics of violence in the group where the perpetrator operates, the victim, spectators and the inquisitors. Conducted a desk study with selected sources indexed datábase during the period 2009 to 2014. The findings reported in the literature review warn that criminal behavior is the solé responsibility of the perpetrator, although the revised models show the victim, spectators and the inquisitors would stewards. Thus, the discussion was made considering the contributions of experts and the conceptual framework.

Resultados incottrolables en la vida e impotenca aprendida generalizada: facillitadores para aceptar un estatus inferior / Uncontrllable reesults throughout life nd generalized learned helplesssness: enhancers for acceptance of a lower status

Se propone que altos niveles de exposición a resultados incontrolables generan un estado de impotencia aprendida generalizada, entendida como una disposición por evitar tareas difíciles, rendirse fácilmente ante situaciones adversas y aceptar rápidamente la superioridad de otros en situaciones de competencia. Esta condición es relevante en la conformación de jerarquías individuales y grupales. Un primer estudio analiza las respuestas de 375 participantes a mediciones de exposición a resultados incontrolables en la vida (estilos de crianza en la infancia y problemas a lo largo de la vida) y un estado de impotencia aprendida generalizado (estilos de afrontamiento, motivación por evitar el fracaso, creencia en el mundo justo y afrontamiento emocional a la incertidumbre). Se concluye que niveles altos de exposición a resultados incontrolables se asocian positivamente con los indicadores de impotencia aprendida generalizada. El segundo estudio realiza un procedimiento experimental donde 63 participantes juegan tres competencias manipuladas para hacerlos perder repetidamente frente al otro jugador. Al finalizar cada ronda adoptan el rol de receptores en el juego de ultimátum frente al jugador ganador, quien será el proponente. Se observa que los participantes con un perfil de alta exposición a resultados incontrolables asumen más pronto la superioridad del otro jugador y que esta percepción de pocas posibilidades de ganar se asocia con una mayor aceptación de la mínima oferta posible en el juego de ultimátum. Se discuten los resultados de ambos estudios en el marco de la teoría de la justificación del sistema social y las relaciones entre grupos de diferente estatus.

We propose that being exposed to high levels of uncontrollable results leads to a state of generalized learned helplessness, i.e. a disposition for avoiding difficult tasks, giving up easily while facing hard situations and easily accepting the superiority of others in scenarios of competition. This condition is relevant in individual and group status conformation. Two studies are presented; the first one analyzes responses of 375 participants to measures of exposition to uncontrollable results in history of life (rearing styles lived during childhood, and troubles experienced through life) and a state of generalized learned helplessness (coping styles, motivation to avoid failure, belief in a just world and emotional coping uncertainty. It is concluded that high levels of exposition to uncontrollable results are associated positively with the generalized learned helplessness indices. The second study uses an experimental procedure where 63 participants of the first study play three rounds of competitions fixed in order to make them lose all games. Finalizing each round, losers take on the receivers' role in the ultimatum game, while the winners are the proposers. It is observed that participants with high exposure to uncontrollable results sooner accept the superiority of the other player in the experimental task. This perception of few possibilities of winning is associated with better acceptance of the minimal offer in the ultimatum game. Results of both studies are discussed around the social system justification theory and relationships between groups and social categories with status differences.

Desamparo aprendido e incontrolabilidade: relevância para uma abordagem analítico-comportamental da depressão / Learned helplessness and uncontrollability: relevance of a behavior analytic approach to depression

Este artigo oferece uma análise dos diferentes usos do conceito de incontrolabilidade vinculados ao modelo do desamparo aprendido, apontado como um modelo animal de depressão, indicando como a mesma topografia verbal é emitida sob controle de eventos distintos. Discute-se a generalidade do conceito de desamparo aprendido a partir de dados obtidos com humanos, abordando-se também aspectos relativos à participação de contingências verbais na ocorrência do efeito. Variáveis relevantes para a generalidade do desamparo aprendido - enquanto modelo experimental e equivalente animal da depressão na análise do comportamento - são discutidas, justificando-se a necessidade de maior investigação da correspondência entre o conceito de incontrolabilidade e a condição experimentalmente estabelecida em laboratório e da produção de desamparo aprendido em humanos com participação de processos verbais.

References to the experience of uncontrollability are often found in the literature in association with learned helplessness. This paper offers an analysis of the different uses of the concept of uncontrollability, indicating how the same verbal topography is controlled by different events. The generality of learned helplessness is discussed based on experiments with human subjects, also pointing out the role of verbal contingencies for the occurrence of learned helplessness in humans. Relevant variables to the generality of learned helplessness as the experimental model and animal equivalent of depression are discussed, justifying the need for more research into aspects such as the correspondence between the concept of uncontrollability and the experimentally established condition in the laboratory and the production of learned helplessness in humans involving verbal processes.

Efeitos da exposição a estímulos aversivos e apetitivos incontroláveis sobre o comportamento verbal em contingências de reforço positivo / Effects of exposure to uncontrollable, aversive and appetitive stimuli on verbal behavior under positive reinforcement contingencies

Foram analisados efeitos de diferentes histórias de incontrolabilidade por perda ou ganho de pontos sobre o desempenho posterior de participantes humanos na construção de frases. Inicialmente, os participantes podiam ganhar ou perder pontos independentemente de qualquer característica da frase construída. Posteriormente, recebiam pontos por construir frases iniciadas apenas pelo pronome "ele". Os resultados mostram que a exposição à incontrolabilidade pode dificultar condições posteriores de novas aprendizagens sob reforçamento positivo. Interessantemente, essas dificuldades foram menos acentuadas e, em certos casos, até mesmo superadas, no caso de uma história de exposição a ganhos incontroláveis de pontos. Em contrapartida, no caso de uma história de perdas incontroláveis de pontos, aprendizagens subsequentes sob reforço positivo tenderam a ser prejudicadas. Esses resultados contribuem para os estudos de incontrolabilidade e desamparo aprendido, em particular por apresentar alternativas metodológicas passíveis de aplicação a respostas verbais em humanos.

Human participants were exposed to a task in which, by constructing sentences, the effects of different stories of uncontrollability were assessed through the loss or acquisition of points in a subsequent exposure to a new learning condition. Initially, subjects could lose or win points regardless of any specific response. Subsequently, they would receive points for constructing any sentence beginning with the pronoun "he". Results show that exposure to uncontrollability can make it difficult to acquire a subsequent learning task. In particular, the effects of the history of exposure to uncontrollable points gains were relatively short-lived, concentrated at the beginning of the learning process and tending to recover throughout the exposure to the new task. On the other hand, the effects of uncontrollability through the loss of points had a detrimental effect on the acquisition of the new task. These results contribute to the study of uncontrollability and learned helplessness, particularly by proposing alternative methods using human verbal responses.

Novas relações entre as interpretações funcionais do desamparo aprendido e do modelo comportamental de depressão / New relations among functional interpretations of the learned helplessness and the behavioral model of depression

O desamparo aprendido tem sido referido como sendo um modelo animal de depressão. Sua hipótese tradicional afirma que sujeitos submetidos a estímulos aversivos incontroláveis desenvolverão dificuldades de aprendizagem, diminuindo a freqüência de atividade. Essa análise historicamente apresentou certa dissonância com o modelo clínico que afirmava que alguns comportamentos aumentavam de freqüência durante o episódio depressivo. Contudo, algumas pesquisas mostraram que os sujeitos pré-expostos a incontrolabilidade aprendem a resposta de fuga, a depender das propriedades da contingência de teste como a contigüidade da conseqüência e o controle discriminativo. Esses dados impulsionaram a formulação de uma nova hipótese funcional para o procedimento experimental. No artigo, sugere-se um diálogo possível entre a nova hipótese e o modelo comportamental da depressão.

The learned helplessness has been referred as being an animal model of depression. Its traditional hypothesis affirms that subjects submitted to uncontrollable aversive stimuli will develop learning difficulties, reducing their activity frequency. Such analysis has historically presented certain dissonance with the clinical model that affirmed some behaviors increased in frequency during the depressive episode. However, some researches show that subjects pre-exposed to uncontrollability learn the escape response, depending on the properties of the test contingency such as the contiguity of the consequence and the specific discriminative control. Those data impelled the formulation of a new functional hypothesis for the experimental procedure. In this article, it is suggested a possible dialogue between the new hypothesis and the behavioral model of depression.

Alterações ambientais independentes da resposta e sua interação com o relato verbal / Response-independent environmental changes and their interaction with verbal reports

Investigou-se os efeitos da exposição a eventos aversivos incontroláveis ou controláveis sobre o desempenho posterior a tal exposição e se estes efeitos seriam alterados pela solicitação de relatos do desempenho. Participaram 40 adultos distribuídos em 3 grupos experimentais: Controle, Fuga e Emparelhado. Na Fase 1 os participantes do Grupo Fuga e Emparelhado foram submetidos a 40 tentativas de apresentação de um som por até 5s: os participantes dos grupos Fuga podiam desligar os sons pressionando teclas no computador e os participantes do grupo Emparelhados foram submetidos à mesma distribuição e duração de sons de um participante dos grupo Fuga, mas não podiam desligar os sons. Os participantes também foram solicitados a fazer relatos sobre a tarefa e seu desempenho, variando-se o número de solicitações e as tentativas em que ocorreram. Todos os participantes passaram pela Fase 2 e todos podiam desligar o som clicando o mouse sobre ícones na tela do computador. Os resultados apontaram que em geral os participantes não tiveram desempenhos caracterizados como comportamento supersticioso ou desamparo aprendido e que padrões de respostas na Fase 1 estão relacionados com os desempenhos na Fase 2. Quanto ao relato, dizer que sabiam o que fazer não foi preditivo de sucesso na Fase 2, mas sucessivas solicitações de relato parecem ter promovido descrição, pelo participante, de seu comportamento e de auto-observação.

The present study investigated the effects of exposure to both controllable and uncontrollable aversive events on the performances of adults. A second goal was to evaluate the effects of requests for verbal reports on participants’ performances. Forty adults were assigned to 3 groups: participants of the Escape Group were exposed to a Training Condition where an aversive sound could be turned off by their responses. Participants of the Yoked Group were exposed to the same Training Condition, but no responses were effective in turning off the sound. Participants of all Groups were exposed to a Test Condition where a different response turned off the sound. Participants of the Escape and Yoked Groups were assigned to 1 of 3 verbal report conditions where they were asked if they knew how to turn off the sound in given trials. Results did not suggest effects associated with helplessness or superstitious behavior, but specific patterns of responding to the Training Condition were closely related to participants’ performances in the Test Condition. Results showed that the verbal reports did not contribute to the emergence or prevention of helplessness.

Diabetes, Depression and Doctor-Patient Relationship / 당뇨병

Although diabetes mellitus (DM) is treatable, it is still not curable. Its chronicity is associated with a high prevalence of psychiatric disorders, especially depression in type 2 DM and learned helplessness in type 1 DM. In turn, this depression and helplessness may affect a patient's adherence to medical appointments, compliance to treatment, and effective doctor-patient relationships, which are vital to promising outcomes. This study reviews the existing literature regarding the interactional relationships between depression, DM and the doctor/patient relationship, and also suggests certain aspects of the doctor/patient relationship which can contribute to more successful treatment outcomes.

Differential response to gepirone but not to chlordiazepoxide in malnourished rats subjected to learned helplessness

The learned helplessness (LH) paradigm is characterized by learning deficits resulting from inescapable events. The aims of the present study were to determine if protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) alters learning deficits induced by LH and if the neurochemical changes induced by malnutrition alter the reactivity to treatment with GABA-ergic and serotonergic drugs during LH. Well-nourished (W) and PCM Wistar rats (61 days old) were exposed or not to inescapable shocks (IS) and treated with gepirone (GEP, 0.0-7.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally, N = 128) or chlordiazepoxide (0.0-7.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally, N = 128) 72 h later, 30 min before the test session (30 trials of escape learning). The results showed that rats exposed to IS had higher escape latency than non-exposed rats (12.6 ± 2.2 vs 4.4 ± 0.8 s) and that malnutrition increased learning impairment produced by LH. GEP increased the escape latency of W animals exposed or non-exposed to IS, but did not affect the response of PCM animals, while chlordiazepoxide reduced the escape deficit of both W and PCM rats. The data suggest that PCM animals were more sensitive to the impairment produced by LH and that PCM led to neurochemical changes in the serotonergic system, resulting in hyporeactivity to the anxiogenic effects of GEP in the LH paradigm.

Reversão dos efeitos da história de incontrolabilidade sob contingências de variação comportamental / Reversing the effects of a history of uncontrollability under behavior variation contingencies / Reversión de los efectos de la historia de incontrolabilidad bajo contingencias de variación

A exposição a eventos incontroláveis produz dificuldade na aprendizagem de novos comportamentos. O presente estudo investigou o papel da instrução e da exposição à controlabilidade na reversão dos efeitos da história de incontrolabilidade. No treino, estudantes universitários foram expostos à controlabilidade (grupo CC) ou à incontrolabilidade (grupos IC, ICi, II, IIi). Na "terapia", os grupos CC, IC e ICi foram expostos à controlabilidade, enquanto os grupos II e IIi continuaram expostos à incontrolabilidade. Os grupos ICi e IIi receberam uma instrução de incontrolabilidade/controlabilidade. No teste, todos os grupos foram expostos a controlabilidade. Os participantes expostos apenas à incontrolabilidade (grupos II e IIi) apresentaram maior persistência do responder do que aqueles expostos à "terapia" (grupos IC e ICi), os quais não diferiram dos participantes expostos apenas à controlabilidade (Grupo CC), a despeito da instrução. O procedimento de "terapia", portanto, foi mais efetivo do que a instrução para reverter os efeitos da história de incontrolabilidade.

Pre-exposure to uncontrollable events interferes with subsequent learning of new behaviors. The present study investigated the role of instructions and of the exposure to controllability in reversing the effects of a history of uncontrollability. During training, college students were exposed to controllability (CC Group) or to uncontrollability (IC, ICi, II and Iii groups). During "therapy", the CC, IC and ICi groups were exposed to controllability while the II and IIi groups remained exposed to uncontrollability. An instruction on uncontrollability/controllability was given to the ICi and IIi groups. During testing, all groups were exposed to controllability. The participants exposed only to uncontrollability (II and IIi groups) showed greater response persistence than those exposed to "therapy" (IC and ICi groups) that did not differ from those exposed only to controllability (CC Group). The "therapy" procedure, then, was more effective than instructions in reversing the effects of a history of uncontrollability.

La exposición a eventos incontrolables produce dificultad en el aprendizaje de nuevos comportamientos. El presente estudio investigó el rol de la instrucción y de la exposición a la controlabilidad en la reversión de los efectos de la historia de incontrolabilidad. En el entrenamiento, estudiantes universitarios fueron expuestos a la controlabilidad (grupo CC) o a la incontrolabilidad (grupos IC, ICi, II, IIi). En la "terapia", los grupos CC, IC y ICi fueron expuestos a la controlabilidad, mientras que los grupos II y IIi siguieron expuestos a la incontrolabilidad. Los grupos ICi y IIi recibieron una instrucción de incontrolabilidad/controlabilidad. En el test, todos los grupos fueron expuestos a la controlabilidad. Los participantes expuestos sólo a la incontrolabilidad (grupos II y IIi) presentaron mayor persistencia del responder, comparados a aquellos expuestos a la "terapia" (grupos IC y ICi), los cuales no se distinguieron de los participantes expuestos sólo a la controlabilidad (Grupo CC), pese a la instrucción. El procedimiento de "terapia", por lo tanto, fue más efectivo que la instrucción para revertir los efectos de la historia de incontrolabilidad.

The Effect of Fluoxetine on Behaviors in Transient Forebrain Ischemic Gerbil / 대한정신약물학회지

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to explore the effect of fluoxetine on memory, locomotor and depressive behavior in transient forebrain ischemic model of gerbil. METHODS: Doses of fluoxetine (10, 40 mg/kg) or vehicle were intraperitoneally administered once 30 min before ischemic surgery in gerbil. Novel object recognition test, spontaneous motor activity, learned helplessness test were performed 4 days, 8 days, or 9 days, respectively, after sham or ischemic surgery. RESULTS: Fluoxetine treatment (40 mg/kg) significantly reduced recognition memory in sham operated gerbil. However, fluoxetine (10, 40 mg/kg) did not affect ischemia-induced impairment in recognition memory. The treatment of fluoxetine (10, 40 mg/kg) significantly inhibited locomotor hyperactivity induced by transient ischemia even though fluoxetine (40 mg/kg) did not affect spontaneous motor activity in the sham operated gerbils. Fluoxetine did not affect depressive behavior in sham and ischemic gerbils. CONCLUSION: The treatment of fluoxetine inhibited ischemia-induced hyperactivity, but did not affect memory and depressive behavior in transient forebrain ischemic gerbils.

Animal Models of Depresstion and Screening of Antidepressants / 대한정신약물학회지

Depression is one of the most common disease, but the pathophysiologic mechanism of depression remains elusive. To elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of depression, animal models of depression have been developed, and these models were used successfully to predict the clinical efficacy of new antidepressant drugs. However, it is not likely that current animal models imitate all aspects of depression and are reliable, because we can not evaluate emotional state of rodents verbally and rodents have very different behavioral responses compared with ours. Despite these difficulties, understanding the benefits and limitations of animal models is very important for an advance in basic and clinical research of depression. The first part of the review evaluates animal models of depression in relation with stress that may contribute, in part, to development of depression: chronic mild stress, chronic unpredictable stress, maternal separation. The second part describes the most widely used animal models to screen for potential antidepressant: learned helplessness model and forced swimming test.